THE ART OF LOGICAL THINKING/PART 3
CHAPTER III.
THE CONCEPT
In
considering the process of thinking, we must classify the several steps or
stages of thought that we may examine each in detail for the purpose of
comprehending them combined as a whole. In actual thinking these several steps
or stages are not clearly separated in consciousness, so that each stands out
clear and distinct from the preceding and succeeding steps or stages, but, on
the contrary, they blend and shade into each other so that it is often
difficult to draw a clear dividing line. The first step or stage in the process
of thinking is that which is called a concept.
A
concept is a mental representation of anything. Prof. Wm. James says: "The
function by which we mark off, discriminate, draw a line around, and identify a
numerically distinct subject of discourse is called conception."
There are five stages or steps in each concept, as follows:
I. Presentation. Before
a concept may be formed there must first be a presentation of the material from
which the concept is to be formed. If we wish to form the concept, animal,
we must first have perceived an animal, probably several kinds of
animals—horses, dogs, cats, cows, pigs, lions, tigers, etc. We must also have
received impressions from the sight of these animals which may be reproduced by
the memory—represented to the mind. In order that we may have a full concept
of animal we should have perceived every kind of animal, for
otherwise there would be some elements of the full concept lacking. Accordingly
it is practically impossible to have a full concept of
anything. The greater the opportunities for perception the greater will be the
opportunity for conception. In other books of this series we have spoken of the
value and importance of the attention and of clear and full perception. Without
an active employment of the attention, it is impossible to receive a clear
perception of anything; and unless the perception has been clear, it is
impossible for the mind to form a clear concept of the thing perceived. As
Sir Wm. Hamilton has said: "An act of attention, that is an act of
concentration, seems thus necessary to every exertion of consciousness, as a
certain contraction of the pupil is requisite to every exertion of vision....
Attention, then, is to consciousness what the contraction of the pupil is to sight,
or to the eye of the mind what the microscope or telescope is to the bodily
eye.... It constitutes the half of all intellectual power." And Sir B.
Brodie said: "It is attention, much more than in the abstract power of
reasoning, which constitutes the vast difference which exists between minds of
different individuals." And as Dr. Beattie says: "The force with
which anything strikes the mind is generally in proportion to the degree of
attention bestowed upon it."
II. Comparison. Following
the stage of Presentation is the stage of Comparison. We separate our general
concept of animal into a number of sub-concepts, or concepts
of various kinds of animals. We compare the pig with the goat, the cow with the
horse, in fact each animal with all other animals known to us. By this process
we distinguish the points of resemblance and the points of difference. We
perceive that the wolf resembles the dog to a considerable degree; that it has
some points of resemblance to the fox; and a still less distinct resemblance to
the bear; also that it differs materially from the horse, the cow or the
elephant. We also learn that there are various kinds of wolves, all bearing a
great resemblance to each other, and yet having marked points of difference.
The closer we observe the various individuals among the wolves, the more points
of difference do we find. The faculty of Comparison evidences itself in
inductive reasoning; ability and disposition to analyze, classify, compare,
etc. Fowler says that those in whom it is largely developed "Reason
clearly and correctly from conclusions and scientific facts up to the laws
which govern them; discern the known from the unknown; detect error by its
incongruity with facts; have an excellent talent for comparing, explaining, expounding,
criticising, exposing, etc." Prof. William James says: "Any personal
or practical interest in the results to be obtained by distinguishing, makes
one's wits amazingly sharp to detect differences. And long training and
practice in distinguishing has the same effect as personal interest. Both of
these agencies give to small amounts of objective difference the same
effectiveness upon the mind that, under other circumstances, only large ones
would make."
III. Abstraction. Following
the stage of Comparison is that of Abstraction. The term
"Abstraction" as used in psychology means: "The act or process
of separating from the numerous qualities inherent in any object, the
particular one which we wish to make the subject of observation and reflection.
Or, the act of withdrawing the consciousness from a number of objects with a
view to concentrate it on some particular one. The negative act of which
Attention is the positive." To abstract is "to
separate or set apart." In the process of Abstraction in our consideration
of animals, after having recognized the various points of
difference and resemblance between the various species and individuals, we
proceed to consider some special quality of animals, and, in doing so, we abstract,
set aside, or separate the particular quality which we wish to consider.
If we wish to consider the size of animals, we abstract the
quality of size from the other qualities, and consider animals with reference
to size alone. Thus we consider the various degrees of size of the various
animals, classifying them accordingly. In the same way we may abstract the
quality of shape, color or habits, respectively, setting aside this quality for
special observation and classification. If we wish to study, examine or
consider certain qualities in a thing we abstract that particular quality from
the other qualities of the thing; or we abstract the other qualities until
nothing is left but the particular quality under consideration. In examining or
considering a class or number of things, we first abstract the qualities possessed
in common by the class or number of things; and also abstract or set
aside the qualities not common to them.
For
instance; in considering classes of animals, we abstract the combined quality
of milk-giving and pouch-possessing which is possessed in common by a number of
animals; then we group these several animals in a class which we name the Marsupialia,
of which the opossum and kangaroo are members. In these animals the young
are brought forth in an imperfect condition, undeveloped in size and condition,
and are then kept in the pouch and nourished until they are able to care for
themselves. Likewise, we may abstract the idea of the placenta, the
appendage which connects the young unborn animal with the mother, and by means
of which the fœtus is nourished. The animals distinguished by this quality are
grouped together as the Placental Mammals. The Placental Mammals are divided
into various groups, by an Abstraction of qualities or class resemblance or
difference, as follows: The Edentata, or toothless creatures, such
as the sloths, ant-eaters, armadillos, etc.; the Sirenia, so-named
from their fancied resemblance to the fabled "sirens," among which
class are the sea-cows, manatees, dugongs, etc.; the Cetacea, or
whale family, which although fish-like in appearance, are really mammals,
giving birth to living young which they nourish with breast-milk, among which
are the whales, porpoises, dolphins, etc.; the Ungulata, or hoofed
animals, such as the horse, the tapir, the rhinoceros, the swine, the
hippopotamus, the camel, the deer, the sheep, the cow, etc.; the Hyracoidea,
having teeth resembling both the hoofed animals and the gnawing animals, of
which the coney or rock-rabbit is the principal example; the Proboscidea,
or trunked animals, which family is represented by the various families of
elephants; the Carnivora, or flesh-eaters, represented by various
sub-families and species; the Rodentia, or gnawers; the Insectivora,
or insect feeders; the Cheiroptera, or finger-winged; the Lemuroidea,
or lemurs, having the general appearance of the monkey, but also the long bushy
tail of the fox; the Primates, including the monkeys, baboons,
man-apes, gibbons, gorillas, chimpanzees, orang-outangs and Man.
In
all of these cases you will see that each class or general family possesses a
certain common quality which gives it its classification, and
which quality is the subject of the Abstraction in considering the particular
group of animals. Further and closer Abstraction divides these classes into
sub-classes; for instance, the family or class of the Carnivora, or
flesh-eaters, may be divided by further Abstraction into the classes of seals,
bears, weasels, wolves, dogs, lions, tigers, leopards, etc. In this process, we
must first make the more general Abstraction of the wolf and similar animals
into the dog-family; and the lion, tiger and similar forms into the cat-family.
Halleck
says of Abstraction: "In the process of Abstraction, we draw our attention
away from a mass of confusing details, unimportant at the time, and attend only
to qualities common to the class. Abstraction is little else than centering the
power of attention on some qualities to the exclusion of others."
IV. Generalization. Arising
from the stage of Abstraction is the stage of Generalization. Generalization is:
"The act or process of generalizing or making general; bringing several
objects agreeing in some point under a common or general name, head or class;
an extending from particulars to generals; reducing or arranging in a genus;
bringing a particular fact or series of facts into a relation with a wider
circle of facts." As Bolingbroke says: "The mind, therefore, makes
its utmost endeavors to generalize its ideas, beginning
early with such as are most familiar and coming in time to those which are less
so." Under the head of Abstraction we have seen that through Abstraction
we may Generalize the various species into the various families, and thus, in
turn, into the various sub-families. Following the same process we may narrow
down the sub-families into species composed of various individuals; or into
greater and still greater families or groups. Generalization is really the act
of Classification, or forming into classes all things having certain qualities
or properties in common. The corollary is that all things
in a certain generalized class must possess the particular quality or property
common to the class. Thus we know that all animals in the class of
the Carnivora must eat flesh; and that all Mammals possess
breasts from which they feed their young. As Halleck says: "We put all
objects having like qualities into a certain genus, or class. When
the objects are in that class, we know that certain qualities will have
a general application to them all."
V. Denomination. Following
closely upon the step of Generalization or Classification, is the step of
Denomination. By Denomination we mean "the act of naming
or designating by a name." A name is the symbol by which we think of a
familiar thing without the necessity for making a distinct mental image upon
each occasion of thought. Or, it may be considered as akin to a label affixed
to a thing. As in the case of the algebraic symbols, a, b, c, x,
and y, by the use of which we are able to make intricate calculations
easily and rapidly, so may we use these word symbols much more readily than we
could the lengthy descriptions or even the mental images of the thing
symbolized. It is much easier for us to think "horse" than it
would be to think the full definition of that animal, or to think of it by
recalling a mental picture of the horse each time we wished to think of it. Or,
it is much better for us to be able to glance at a label on a package or bottle
than to examine the contents in detail. As Hobbes says: "A word taken at
pleasure to serve for a mark, which may raise in our minds a thought like to
some thought we had before, and which being pronounced to others, may be to
them a sign of what thought the speaker had or had not, before in his
mind." Mill says: "A name is a word (or set of words) serving the
double purpose of a mark to recall to ourselves the likeness of a former
thought and as a sign to make it known to others." Some philosophers
regard names as symbols of our ideas of things, rather than of the
things themselves; others regard them as symbols of the things themselves. It
will be seen that the value of a name depends materially upon the correct
meaning and understanding regarding it possessed by the person using it.
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