THOUGHT-CULTURE/PART 11
CHAPTER XI.
JUDGMENT
We have
seen that in the several mental processes which are grouped together under the
general head of Understanding, the stage or step of Abstraction is first;
following which is the second step or phase, called Generalization or Conception.
The third step or phase is that which is called Judgment. In the exercise of
the faculty of Judgment, we determine the agreement or disagreement between two
concepts, ideas, or objects of thought, by comparing them one with another.
From this process of comparison arises the Judgment, which is expressed in the
shape of a logical Proposition. A certain form of Judgment must be used,
however, in the actual formation of a Concept, for we must first compare
qualities, and make a judgment thereon, in order to form a general idea. In
this place, however, we shall confine ourselves to the consideration of the
faculty of Judgment in the strictly logical usage of the term, as
previously stated.
We have
seen that the expression of a concept is called a Term, which is the name of
the concept. In the same way when we compare two terms (expressions of
concepts) and pass Judgment thereon, the expression of that Judgment is called
a Proposition. In every Judgment and Proposition there must be two Terms or
Concepts, connected by a little word "is" or "are," or some
form of the verb "to be," in the present tense indicative. This
connecting word is called the Copula. For instance, we may compare the two
terms horse and animal, as follows: "A horse
is an animal," the word is being the Copula or symbol of
the affirmative Judgment, which connects the two terms. In the
same way we may form a negative Judgment as follows: "A
horse is not a cow." In a Proposition, the term of which something
is affirmed is called the Subject; and the term expressing
that which is affirmed of the subject is called the Predicate.
Besides the distinction
between affirmative Judgments, or Propositions, there is a distinction arising
from quantity, which separates them into the respective classes of particular and universal.
Thus, "all horses are animals," is a universal Judgment;
while "some horses are black" is a particular Judgment.
Thus all Judgments must be either affirmative or negative;
and also either particular or universal. This
gives us four possible classes of Judgments, as follows, and illustrated
symbolically:
1. Universal Affirmative, as "All A is B."
2. Universal Negative, as "No A is B."
3. Particular Affirmative, as "Some A is B."
4. Particular Negative, as "Some A is not B."
The Term
or Judgment is said to be "distributed" (that is, extended
universally) when it is used in its fullest sense, in which it is used in the
sense of "each and every" of its kind or class. Thus in the
proposition "Horses are animals" the meaning is that "each
and every" horse is an animal—in this case the subject is
"distributed" or made universal. But the predicate is not "distributed"
or made universal, but remains particular or restricted and implies merely
"some." For the proposition does not mean that the class "horses"
includes all animals. For we may say that: "Some animals
are not horses." So you see we have several instances in
which the "distribution" varies, both as regards the subject and also
the predicate. The rule of logic applying in this case is as follows:
1. In universal propositions, the subject is
distributed.
2. In particular propositions, the subject is not distributed.
3. In negative propositions, the predicate is
distributed.
4. In affirmative propositions, the predicate is not distributed.
A little
time devoted to the analysis and understanding of the above rules will repay
the student for his trouble, inasmuch as it will train his mind in the
direction of logical distinction and judgment. The importance of these rules
will appear later.
Halleck
says: "Judgment is the power revolutionizing the world. The revolution is
slow because nature's forces are so complex, so hard to be reduced to their
simplest forms, and so disguised and neutralized by the presence of other
forces. The progress of the next hundred years will join many concepts, which
now seem to have no common qualities. If the vast amount of energy latent in
the sunbeams, in the rays of the stars, in the winds, in the rising and falling
of the tides, is treasured up and applied to human purposes, it will be a fresh
triumph for judgment. This world is rolling around in a universe of energy, of
which judgment has as yet harnessed only the smallest appreciable fraction.
Fortunately, judgment is ever working and silently comparing things that, to
past ages, have seemed dissimilar; and it is constantly abstracting and leaving
out of the field of view those qualities which have simply served to obscure
the point at issue." Brooks says: "The power of judgment is of great
value to its products. It is involved in or accompanies every act of the
intellect, and thus lies at the foundation of all intellectual activity. It
operates directly in every act of the understanding; and even aids the other
faculties of the mind in completing their activities and products."
The best
method of cultivating the power of Judgment is the exercise of the faculty in
the direction of making comparisons, of weighing differences and resemblances,
and in generally training the mind along the lines of Logical Thinking. Another
volume of this series is devoted to the latter subject, and should aid the
student who wishes to cultivate the habit of logical and scientific thought.
The study of mathematics is calculated to develop the faculty of Judgment,
because it necessitates the use of the powers of comparison and decision.
Mental arithmetic, especially, will tend to strengthen, and exercise this
faculty of the mind.
Geometry
and Logic will give the very best exercise along these lines to those who care
to devote the time, attention and work to the task. Games, such as chess, and
checkers or draughts, tend to develop the powers of Judgment. The study of the
definitions of words in a good dictionary will also tend to give excellent
exercise along the same lines. The exercises given in this book for the
cultivation and development of the several faculties, will tend to develop this
particular faculty in a general way, for the exercise of Judgment is
required at each step of the way, and in each exercise.
Brooks says:
"It should be one of the leading objects of the culture of young people to
lead them to acquire the habit of forming judgments. They should not only be
led to see things, but to have opinions about things. They should be trained to
see things in their relations, and to put these relations into definite
propositions. Their ideas of objects should be worked up into thoughts
concerning the objects. Those methods of teaching are best which tend to excite
a thoughtful habit of mind that notices the similitudes and diversities of
objects, and endeavors to read the thoughts which they embody and of which they
are the symbols."
The
exercises given at the close of the next chapter, entitled "Derived
Judgments," will give to the mind a decided trend in the direction of
logical judgment. We heartily recommend them to the student.
The
student will find that he will tend to acquire the habit of clear logical
comparison and judgment, if he will memorize and apply in his thinking the
following excellent Primary Rules of Thought, stated by Jevons:
"I. Law
of Identity: The same quality or thing is always the same
quality or thing, no matter how different the conditions in which it occurs.
"II. Law
of Contradiction: Nothing can at the same time and place both be
and not be.
"III. Law
of Excluded Middle: Everything must either be, or not be;
there is no other alternative or middle course."
Jevons
says of these laws: "Students are seldom able to see at first their full
meaning and importance. All arguments may be explained when these self-evident
laws are granted; and it is not too much to say that the whole of logic
will be plain to those who will constantly use these laws as their key."
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