THOUGHT-CULTURE/PART 9
CHAPTER IX.
ASSOCIATION OF IDEAS
Having
formed general ideas, or Concepts, it is important that we associate them with
other general ideas. In order to fully understand a general
idea we must know its associations and relations. The greater the known
associations or relations of an idea, the greater is our degree of
understanding of that idea. If we simply know many thousands of separated
general ideas, without also knowing their associations and relations, we are in
almost as difficult a position as if we merely knew thousands of individual
percepts without being able to classify them in general concepts. It is
necessary to develop the faculty of associating ideas into groups, according to
their relations, just as we group particular ideas in classes. The difference,
however, is that these group-ideas do not form classes of a genus, but depend
solely upon associations of several kinds, as we shall see in a moment.
Halleck
says: "All ideas have certain definite associations with other ideas, and
they come up in groups. There is always an association between our ideas,
although there are cases when we cannot trace it.... Even when we find no
association between our ideas, we may be sure that it exists.... An idea, then,
never appears in consciousness unless there is a definite reason why this idea
should appear in preference to others." Brooks says: "One idea or
feeling in the mind calls up some other idea or feeling with which it is in
some way related. Our ideas seem, as it were, to be tied together by the
invisible thread of association, so that as one comes out of unconsciousness,
it draws another with it. Thoughts seem to exist somewhat in clusters like the
grapes of a bunch, so that in bringing out one, we bring the entire cluster
with it. The law of association is thus the tie, the thread, the golden link by
which our thoughts are united in an act of reproduction."
The
majority of writers confine their consideration of Association of Ideas to its
relation to Memory. It is true that the Laws of Association play an important
part in Memory Culture, but Association of Ideas also form an important
part of the general subject of Thought-Culture, and especially in the phase of the
latter devoted to the development of the Understanding. The best authorities
agree upon this idea and state it positively. Ribot says: "The most
fundamental law which regulates psychological phenomena is the Law of
Association. In its comprehensive character it is comparable to the law of
attraction in the physical world." Mill says: "That which the law of
gravitation is to astronomy, that which the elementary properties of the
tissues are to physiology, the Law of Association of Ideas is to psychology."
There are
two general principles, or laws, operative in the processes of Association of
Ideas, known as (1) Association by Contiguity; and (2) Association by
Similarity, respectively.
Association
by Contiguity manifests particularly in the processes of memory. In its two
phases of (1) Contiguity of Time; and (2) Contiguity of Space, respectively, it
brings together before the field of consciousness ideas associated with each by
reason of their time or space relations. Thus, if we remember a certain thing,
we find it easy to remember things which occurred immediately before, or
immediately after that particular thing. Verbal memory depends largely upon the
contiguity of time, as for instance, our ability to repeat a poem, or passage
from a book, if we can recall the first words thereof. Children often possess
this form of memory to a surprising degree; and adults with only a limited
degree of understanding may repeat freely long extracts from speeches they have
heard, or even arbitrary jumbles of words. Visual memory depends largely upon
contiguity of space, as for instance our ability to recall the details of
scenes, when starting from a given point. In both of these forms of association
by contiguity the mental operation is akin to that of unwinding a ball of yarn,
the ideas, thus associated in the sequence of time or place, following each
other into the field of consciousness. Association by Contiguity, while
important in itself, properly belongs to the general subject of Memory, and as
we have considered it in the volume of this series devoted to the last
mentioned subject, we shall not speak of it further here.
Association
by Similarity, however, possesses a special interest to students of the
particular subject of the culture of the Understanding. If we were compelled to
rely upon the association of contiguity for our understanding of things, we
would understand a thing merely in its relations to that which went before or
came after it; or by the things which were near it in space—we would have to
unwind the mental ball of time and space relations in order to bring into
consciousness the associated relations of anything. The Association of
Similarity, however, remedies this defect, and gives us a higher and broader
association. Speaking of Association of Similarity, Kay says: "It is of
the utmost importance to us in forming a judgment of things, or in determining
upon a particular line of conduct, to be able to bring together before the mind
a number of instances of a similar kind, recent or long past,
which may aid us in coming to a right determination. Thus, we may judge of the
nature or quality of an article, and obtain light and leading in regard to any
subject that may be before us. In this way we arrange and classify and reason
by induction. This is known as rational or philosophical
association."
Halleck
says: "An eminent philosopher has said that man is completely at the mercy
of the association of his ideas. Every new object is seen in the light of its
associated ideas.... It is not the business of the psychologist to state what
power the association of ideas ought to have. It is for him to
ascertain what power it does have. When we think of the
bigotry of past ages, of the stake for the martyr and the stoning of witches,
we can realize the force of Prof. Ziehen's statement: 'We cannot think as
we will, but we must think as just those
associations which happen to be present prescribe.' While this is not literally
true, it may serve to emphasize a deflecting factor which is usually
underestimated."
Locke
says: "The connection in our minds of ideas, in themselves loose and
independent of one another, has such an influence, and is of so great force, to
set us awry in our actions, as well moral as natural, passions, reasonings, and
notions themselves, that, perhaps, there is not any one thing that deserves
more to be looked after." Stewart says: "The bulk of mankind,
being but little accustomed to reflect and to generalize, associate their ideas
chiefly according to their more obvious relations, and above all to the casual
relations arising from contiguity in time and place; whereas, in the mind of a
philosopher ideas are commonly associated according to those relations which
are brought to light in consequence of particular efforts of attention, such as
the relations of cause and effect, or of premises and conclusion. Hence, it
must necessarily happen that when he has occasion to apply to use his acquired
knowledge, time and reflection will be requisite to enable him to recollect
it."
This Association
by Similarity, or the "rational and philosophical association of
ideas," may be developed and cultivated by a little care and work. The
first principle is that of learning the true relations of an idea—its
various logical associations. Perhaps the easiest and best method is that
adopted and practiced by Socrates, the old Greek philosopher, often called
"the Socratic method"—the Method of Questioning. By questioning
oneself, or others, regarding a thing, the mind of the person answering
tends to unfold its stores of information, and to make new and true
associations. Kays says: "Socrates, Plato, and others among the ancients
and some moderns, have been masters of this art. The principle of asking
questions and obtaining answers to them may be said to characterize all
intellectual effort.... The great thing is to ask the right questions, and to
obtain the right answers." Meiklejohn says: "This art of questioning
possessed by Dr. Hodgson was something wonderful and unique, and was to the minds
of most of his pupils a truly obstetric art. He told them little or nothing,
but showed them how to find out for themselves. 'The Socratic method,' he said,
'is the true one, especially with the young.'"
But this
questioning must be done logically, and orderly, and not in a haphazard way. As
Fitch says: "In proposing questions it is very necessary to keep in view
the importance of arranging them in the exact order in which the subject would
naturally develop itself in the mind of a logical and systematic thinker."
A number of systems have been formulated by different writers on the
subject, all of which have much merit. The following System of Analysis,
designed for the use of students desiring to acquire correct associations, was
given in the volume of this series, entitled "Memory," and is
reproduced here because it is peculiarly adapted to the cultivation and
development of the faculty of discovering and forming correct associations and
relations between ideas:
SYSTEM OF ANALYSIS
When you
wish to discover what you really know regarding a thing, ask
yourself the following questions about it, examining each point in detail, and
endeavoring to bring before the mind your full knowledge regarding
that particular point. Fill in the deficiencies by reading some good work of
reference, an encyclopedia for instance; or consulting a good dictionary, or
both:
|
1. Where did it come from, or originate? |
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2. What caused it? |
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3. What history or record
has it? |
|
4 What are its
attributes, qualities or characteristics? |
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5. What things can I most
readily associate with it? What is it most like? |
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6. What is it good
for—how may it be used—what can I do with it? |
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7. What does it
prove—what can be deduced from it? |
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8. What are its natural
results—what happens because of it? |
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9. What is its future;
and its natural or probable end or finish? |
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10. What do I think of it,
on the whole—what are my general impressions regarding it? |
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11. What do I know about
it, in the way of general information? |
|
12. What have I heard
about it, and from whom, and when? |
The
following "Query Table," from the same volume, may be found useful in
the same direction. It is simpler and less complicated than the system given
above. It has well been called a "Magic Key of Knowledge," and it
opens many a mental door:
QUERY TABLE
Ask
yourself the following questions regarding the thing under consideration. It
will draw out many bits of information and associated knowledge in your mind:
· I. What?
· II. Whence?
· III. Where?
· IV. When?
· V. How?
· VI. Why?
· VII. Whither?
Remember,
always, that the greater the number of associated and related ideas that you
are able to group around a concept, the richer, fuller and truer does that
concept become to you. The concept is a general idea, and its attributes
of "generality" depend upon the associated facts and ideas related to
it. The greater the number of the view points from which a concept may be
examined and considered, the greater is the degree of knowledge concerning that
concept. It is held that everything in the universe is related to every other
thing, so that if we knew all the associated ideas and facts
concerning a thing, we would not only know that particular thing absolutely,
but would, besides, know everything in the universe. The chain
of Association is infinite in extent.
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